Retroreflective materials are characterized by the ability to redirect light incident on the material back toward the originating light source. This property has led to the wide-spread use of retroreflective sheeting in a variety of conspicuity applications. Retroreflective sheeting is frequently applied to flat, rigid articles such as, for example, road signs and barricades; however, it is also used on irregular or flexible surfaces. For example, retroreflective sheeting can be adhered to the side of a truck trailer, which requires the sheeting to pass over corrugations and protruding rivets, or the sheeting can be adhered to a flexible body portion such as a road worker's safety vest or other such safety garment. In situations where the underlying surface is irregular or flexible, the retroreflective sheeting desirably possesses the ability to conform to the underlying surface without sacrificing retroreflective performance. Additionally, retroreflective sheeting is frequently packaged and shipped in roll form, thus requiring the sheeting to be sufficiently flexible to be rolled around a core.
Two known types of retroreflective sheeting are microsphere-based sheeting and cube corner sheeting. Microsphere-based sheeting sometimes referred to as "beaded" sheeting, employs a multitude of microspheres typically at least partially embedded in a binder layer and having associated specular or diffuse reflecting materials (e.g., pigment particles, metal flakes or vapor coats, etc.) to retroreflect incident light. Illustrative examples are disclosed in U.S. Pat. Nos. 3,190,178 (McKenzie), 4,025,159 (McGrath), and 5,066,098 (Kult). Advantageously, microsphere-based sheeting can generally be adhered to corrugated or flexible surfaces. Also, due to the symmetry of beaded retroreflectors, microsphere based sheeting exhibits a relatively orientationally uniform total light return when rotated about an axis normal to the surface of the sheeting. Thus, such microsphere-based sheeting has a relatively low sensitivity to the orientation at which the sheeting is placed on a surface. In general, however, such sheeting has a lower retroreflective efficiency than cube corner sheeting.
Cube corner retroreflective sheeting comprises a body portion typically having a substantially planar base surface and a structured surface comprising a plurality of cube corner elements opposite the base surface. Each cube-corner element comprises three mutually substantially perpendicular optical faces that intersect at a single reference point, or apex. The base of the cube corner element acts as an aperture through which light is transmitted into the cube corner element. In use, light incident on the base surface of the sheeting is refracted at the base surface of the sheeting, transmitted through the bases of the cube corner elements disposed on the sheeting, reflected from each of the three perpendicular cube-corner optical faces, and redirected toward the light source. The symmetry axis, also called the optical axis, of a cube corner element is the axis that extends through the cube corner apex and forms an equal angle with the three optical faces of the cube corner element. Cube corner elements typically exhibit the highest optical efficiency in response to light incident on the base of the element roughly along the optical axis. The amount of light retroreflected by a cube corner retroreflector drops as the incidence angle deviates from the optical axis.
The maximum retroreflective efficiency of cube corner retroreflective sheeting is a function of the geometry of the cube corner elements on the structured surface of the sheeting. The terms `active area` and `effective aperture` are used in the cube corner arts to characterize the portion of a cube corner element that retroreflects light incident on the base of the element. A detailed teaching regarding the determination of the active aperture for a cube corner element design is beyond the scope of the present disclosure. One procedure for determining the effective aperture of a cube corner geometry is presented in Eckhardt, Applied Optics, v. 10, n. Jul. 7, 1971, pp. 1559-1566. U.S. Pat. No. 835,648 to Straubel also discusses the concept of effective aperture. At a given incidence angle, the active area can be determined by the topological intersection of the projection of the three cube corner faces onto a plane normal to the refracted incident light with the projection of the image surfaces for the third reflections onto the same plane. The term `percent active area` is then defined as the active area divided by the total area of the projection of the cube corner faces. The retroreflective efficiency of retroreflective sheeting correlates directly to the percentage active area of the cube corner elements on the sheeting.
Predicted total light return (TLR) for a cube corner matched pair array can be calculated from a knowledge of percent active area and ray intensity. Ray intensity may be reduced by front surface losses and by reflection from each of the three cube corner surfaces for a retroreflected ray. Total light return is defined as the product of percent active area and ray intensity, or a percentage of the total incident light which is retroreflected. A discussion of total light return for directly machined cube corner arrays is presented in U.S. Pat. No. 3,712,706 (Stamm).
Additionally, the optical characteristics of the retroreflection pattern of retroreflective sheeting are, in part, a function of the geometry of the cube corner elements. Thus, distortions in the geometry of the cube corner elements can cause corresponding distortions in the optical characteristics of the sheeting. To inhibit undesirable physical deformation, cube corner elements of retroreflective sheeting are typically made from a material having a relatively high elastic modulus sufficient to inhibit the physical distortion of the cube corner elements during flexing or elastomeric stretching of the sheeting. As discussed above, it is frequently desirable that retroreflective sheeting be sufficiently flexible to allow the sheeting to be adhered to a substrate that is corrugated or that is itself flexible, or to allow the retroreflective sheeting to be wound into a roll for storage and shipping.
Cube corner retroreflective sheeting is manufactured by first manufacturing a master mold that includes an image, either negative or positive, of a desired cube corner element geometry. The mold can be replicated using nickel electroplating, chemical vapor deposition or physical vapor deposition to produce tooling for forming cube corner retroreflective sheeting. U.S. Pat. No. 5,156,863 to Pricone, et al. provides an illustrative overview of a process for forming tooling used in the manufacture of cube corner retroreflective sheeting. Known methods for manufacturing the master mold include pin-bundling techniques, direct machining techniques, and laminate techniques. Each of these techniques has benefits and limitations.
In pin bundling techniques, a plurality of pins, each having a geometric shape on one end, are assembled together to form a cube-corner retroreflective surface. U.S. Pat. Nos. 1,591,572 (Stimson), 3,926,402 (Heenan), 3,541,606 (Heenan et al.), and 3,632,695 to Howell provide illustrative examples. Pin bundling techniques offer the ability to manufacture a wide variety of cube corner geometries in a single mold. However, pin bundling techniques are economically and technically impractical for making small cube corner elements (e.g. less than about 1.0 millimeters).
In direct machining techniques, a series of grooves are formed in a unitary substrate to form a cube-corner retroreflective surface. U.S. Pat. Nos. 3,712,706 to Stamm and 4,588,258 to Hoopman provide illustrative examples. Direct machining techniques offer the ability to accurately machine very small cube corner elements which are compatible with flexible retroreflective sheeting. However, it is not presently possible to produce certain cube corner geometries that have very high effective apertures at low entrance angles using direct machining techniques. By way of example, the maximum theoretical total light return of the cube corner element geometry depicted in U.S. Pat. No. 3,712,706 is approximately 67%.
In laminate techniques, a plurality of laminae, each lamina having geometric shapes on one end, are assembled to form a cube-corner retroreflective surface. German Provisional Publication (OS) 19 17 292, International Publication Nos. WO 94/18581 (Bohn, et al.), WO 97/04939 (Mimura et al.), and WO 97/04940 (Mimura et al.), each disclose a molded reflector wherein a grooved surface is formed on a plurality of plates. The plates are then tilted by a certain angle and each second plate is shifted crosswise. This process results in a plurality of cube corner elements, each element formed by two machined surfaces on a first plate and one side surface on a second plate. German Patent DE 42 36 799 to Gubela discloses a method for producing a molding tool with a cubical surface for the production of cube corners. An oblique surface is ground or cut in a first direction over the entire length of one edge of a band. A plurality of notches are then formed in a second direction to form cube corner reflectors on the band. Finally, a plurality of notches are formed vertically in the sides of the band. German Provisonal Patent 44 10 994 C2 to Gubela is a related patent. The reflectors disclosed in Patent 44 10 994 C2 are characterized by the reflecting surfaces having concave curvature.